1. WHAT IS A PHONEME?- Both phoneti

1. WHAT IS A PHONEME?
- Both phonetics and phonology study and describe the distinctive sound units or phonemes of a language and their relationship to one another.
- A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.
Ex: PAN and BAN differ only in their initial sound: /p/ and /b/ are phonemes.
- English has 44 phonemes which are classified into 24 consonants, 12 vowels and 8 diphthongs.
2. THE SPEECH ORGANS
The speech organs are the parts of the body that are used to produce the sounds. The speech organs consist of:
- Articulators: The movable parts to modify the air stream to produce different sounds. The articulators are:
1. Vocal cords in the larynx: Where sounds may be produced with vibration (voiced
sounds) or without vibration (voiceless sounds). The opening between the vocal cords is called the glottis.
2. Pharynx: The tube above the larynx. The epiglottis in the pharynx can he raised or lowered to open or close the way to the windpipe.
3. Tongue: The most important articulator because it is flexible and it can move to different places in the mouth.
4. Uvula: The extreme back of the roof of the mouth. It can he raised or lowered to open or close the passage to the nose.
5. Lower teeth (lower jaw): Behind the lower lip.
6. Lower lip: Faces the upper lip. It is flexible and can be pressed against the upper lip or can be rounded or spread.
- Points of articulation: The fixed parts on the roof of the mouth towards which the articulators move to produce sounds. Points of articulation are:
7. Upper lip: Opposite the lower lip.
8. Upper teeth (upper jaw): Opposite the lower teeth.
9. Alveolar ridge/ tooth ridge/ gum: Is between the upper teeth and the hard palate.
10. Hard palate/ roof of the mouth: The hard part of roof of the mouth.
11. Soft palate/ velum: The soft part of the roof of the mouth.
3. CONSONANTS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION
I. What is a consonant?
- A consonant is a sound in producing it the airstream coming from the lungs is stopped, impeded, constricted or otherwise interfered with in its passage to the outside air.
- Consonants are classed as VOICED if they are produced with vibration of the vocal cords and VOICELESS if they are produced without vibration.
II. Classification of consonants: Consonants are classified according to these 4 standards:
A/ PLACES OF ARTICULATION:
1. Bilabial: 2 lips are pressed together. Ex: /p, b, m, w/
2. Labio-dental: The upper teeth and the lower lip come close together. Ex: /f, v/
3. Dental or Interdental: The tip of the tongue is between the upper and lower teeth. Ex: / θ, ð /
4. Alveolar: The tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge. Ex: /t, d, 1, n, s, z/
5. Palato-alveolar: The front of the tongue touches the part between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. Ex: /r, tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ/
6. Velar: The back of the tongue touches the soft palate or velum. Ex: /k, g, ŋ/
7. Palatal: The front of the tongue touches the hard palate. Ex: /j/
8. Glottal: The sound is produced with a friction noise in the glottis between the vocal cords. The glottis opens wide and the sound is voiceless. Ex: /h/
B/ MANNER OF ARTICULATION: The ways the airstream modifies the organs of speech.
1. Plosive or stop: The air is stopped, then released with an explosive sound. Ex: /p, b, t, d, k, g/
2. Fricative: The air is constricted, causing friction when passing through the organs of speech. Ex: / f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ , h/
3. Affricate: It is the combination of the plosive and fricative. The air stream is stopped, then released slowly with friction. Ex: /tʃ, dʒ/
4. Nasal: The air passes through the nose when the uvula is lowered. Ex: /m, n, ŋ/
5. Lateral: The air passes out at both sides of the tongue. Eg: /l/
6. Gliding or semi-vowel (consonant) or approximant: There is a gliding from one to another with little or no obstruction of the air stream. The tip of the tongue approaches alveolar ridge. Ex: /w, r, j/
C/ VOICING: There is presence or absence of the vibration of the vocal cords
1. Voiced: When the vocal cords open and close rapidly.
2. Voiceless: When the vocal cords open wide and there is the vibration of the vocal cords.
D/ ASPIRATION
1. Aspirated: A sound is aspirated when it is at the beginning of a word or in a stressed syllable. Ex: paper , pen , people
2. Unaspirated: A sound is unaspirated when it is before an unstressed syllable, before another stop sound or after /s-/. Ex: paper , spy
SYLLABIC CONSONANTS
* Syllabic consonants are the ones which can form syllable without vowels. The small vertical mark is used to show that a consonant is syllabic.
Ex: table /teibl/
4. VOWELS, TIIEIR CIASSIFICATION
I. VOWELS VS CONSONANTS
1) What is a vowel?
A vowel is a speech sound in which the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat and which is usually pronounced with vibration of the vocal cords.
2) The difference between a vowel and a consonant:
They are different in 2 aspects:
a. A vowel is produced without any stoppage of the airstream in the oral cavity meanwhile there is obstruction in the production of a consonant.
b. A vowel is syllabic, i.e. , it forms the centre or nucleus of a syllable meanwhile a consonant is not except some syllabic consonants.
Ex: are (V) , car (CV) , art (VC) , cart (CVC).
II. CHARACTERISTICS TO CLASSIFY VOWELS
Vowels are classified according to these 5 standards:
1) TONGUE HEIGHT
- Tongue height is the vertical distance between the upper surface of the tongue and the palate (= degree of opening of the mouth).
- The tongue may be raised high, mid or low.
- Correspondingly the position of the jaw may also be close, mid or open.
2) TONGUE POSITION:
This means the front, central or back of the tongue is raised or lowered.
3) LIP ROUNDING:
Different shapes and positions of the lips. They may be rounded, unrounded or neutral.
4) MUSCLE TENSION:
Tenseness in the muscles of the jaw and throat. The muscles may be lax or tense. Short vowels are often lax vowels meanwhile tense vowels are often long vowels.
5) VOWEL LENGTH:
There are 5 long vowels: /i:, u:, Ɔ:, ə: a:/ and 7 short vowels: /i, u, Ɔ, ə, e, æ, ⋀/
5. THE ENGLISH DIPHTHONGS
I/ Definition
They are sounds consisting of a movement or glide from one vowel to another. In terms of length, diphthongs are like long vowels.
II. Classification
1. Centering diphthongs: /iə/, /eə/, /uə/
2. Fronting diphthongs: /ei/, /ai/, /Ɔi/
3. Retracing diphthongs: /əu/, /au/
6. PHONEMES AND ALLOPHONES
I/ What is a phoneme?
- A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish 2 words.
- For example:
a/ In English, the words PAN and BAN differ only in their initial sound: PAN begins with /p/ and BAN with /b/.
b/ BEN and BIN differ only in their vowels: /e/ and /i/
Therefore / p b e i / are phonemes of English. The number of phonemes varies from one language to another. English is often considered to have 44 phonemes: 24 consonants and 20 vowels.
II/ What is an allophone?
- An allophone is any of the different forms of a phoneme.
- For example: In English, when the phoneme /p/ occurs at the beginning of words like PUT /put/ and PEN /pen/ , it is said with a little puff of air. That is, it is aspirated.
But when /p/ occurs in words like SPEND /spend/ and SPELL /spel/ it is unaspirated.
Both the aspirated in PEN and the unaspirated in SPELL have the same phoneme function. That is, they are both heard and identified as [p] and not as [b]. They are both ALLOPHONES of the PHONEME [p].
III/ The difference between a phoneme and an allophone
- A PHONEME is a meaning-distinguish sound in a language. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the 2 sounds represent different phonemes.
Ex: TIE and DIE. They are not allophones.
- Otherwise if we substitute allophones, we have different pronunciation of the same word.
Ex: Phoneme [t] has got 2 allophones:
[tø] aspirated as in TAPE.
[t] unaspirated as in LETTER.
- Phonemes are transcribed phonemically in slant bars / / and allophones are transcribed phonetically in square bracket [ ].
- As a result of this, we have 2 kinds of transcription: narrow transcription (phonetic transcription) and broad transcription (phonemic transcription)
7. BROAD TRANSCRIPTION & NARROW TRANSCRIPTION
I/ Two types of transcription
A. Narrow transcription (also called phonetic transcription): The transcription in which phonemes are transcribed phonetically (with allophones). The phonetic symbol is [ ] (square brackets). This type is more complex, more detailed & gives more information about a phoneme.
As a result, it is the study object of PHONOLOGY (PHONEMICS)
B. Broad transcription (also called phonemic transcription): The transcription in which phonemes are transcribed phonemically. The symbol is / / (slant bars). This type is easy and quick to learn. It is preferred due to these 2 reasons: simple phonemic symbols and easy printing. As a result, it is the study object of PHONETICS
Ex : take / teik /
8. VARIATION
I/ Assimilation
- Assimilation is the influence of one phoneme upon another neighbouring phoneme, so that they become more alike.
- Assimilation is more likely to be found in rapid, casual speech and less likely in slow, careful speech.
- Assimilation affects consonant only.
II/ Elision
- Elision is the complete disappearance of a sound.
- Elision is typical of rapid casual speech. Foreign learners do not need to learn to produce elisions, but the perception of elision is important.
III/ Linking
- Linking happens when we link words together, usually for ease of pronunciation.
Ex: Thousands of people. He eats and drinks.
/z əv/ /s ən/
Learners of English must be made aware of the problems that they will meet in listening to colloquial, connected speech.
9. WORD/ PHRASE AND SENTENCE STRESS
- Stress is the degree of force used in producing a syllable.
- There are three types of stress in English: word, phrase a

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1. WHAT IS A PHONEME?-Both phonetics and phonology the study and describe the distinctive sound units or phonemes of a language and their relationship to one another.-A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.Ex: PAN and BAN differ only in their initial/b/and/p/are phonemes sound:.-English has 44 phonemes which are classified into 24 consonants, vowels and diphthongs 8-12.2. THE SPEECH ORGANSThe speech organs are the parts of the body that are used to produce the sounds. The speech organs consist of:-Articulators: The movable parts to modify the air stream to produce different sounds. The articulators are:1. Vocal cords in the larynx: Where sounds may be produced with vibration (voicedsounds) or without vibration (voiceless sounds). The opening between the vocal cords is called the glottis.2. The Pharynx: The tube above the larynx. The epiglottis in the pharynx can he raised or lowered to open or close the way to the windpipe.3. Tongue: The most important articulator because it is flexible and it can move to different places in the mouth.4. the Uvula: The extreme back of the roof of the mouth. It can he raised or lowered to open or close the passage to the nose.5. Lower teeth (lower jaw): Behind the lower lip.6. Lower lip: Faces the upper lip. It is flexible and can be pressed against the upper lip or can be rounded or spread.-Points of articulation: The fixed parts on the roof of the mouth towards which the articulators move to produce sounds. Points of articulation are:7. Upper lip: Opposite the lower lip.8. Upper teeth (upper jaw): Opposite the lower teeth.9. Alveolar ridge/tooth ridge/gum: Is between the upper teeth and the hard palate.10. Hard palate, roof of the mouth: The hard part of the roof of the mouth.11. Soft palate, velum: The soft part of the roof of the mouth.3. CONSONANTS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATIONI. What is a consonant?-A consonant is a sound in producing it at the airstream coming from the lungs is stopped, impeded, constricted or otherwise interfered with in its passage to the outside air.-The Consonants are classed as VOICED if they are produced with vibration of the vocal cords and VOICELESS if they are produced without vibration.II. Classification of consonants: Consonants are classified according to these four standards: A/PLACES OF ARTICULATION:1. Bilabial: 2 lips are pressed together. Ex:/p, b, m, w,2. Labio-dental: The upper teeth and the lower lip come close together. Ex:/f, v/3. Dental or Interdental: The tip of the tongue is between the upper and lower teeth. Ex:/θ, ð/4. Alveolar: The tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge. Ex:/t, d, 1, n, s, z,Palato-alveolar: 5. The front of the tongue touches the part between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. Ex: tʃ dʒ/r, ʒ, ʃ/,,,6. Velar: The back of the tongue touches the soft palate or velum. Ex: ŋ/, g,/k7. the Palatal: The front of the tongue touches the hard palate. Ex:/j/8. The Glottal sound is produced with a friction noise in the glottis between the vocal cords. The glottis opens wide and the sound is voiceless. Ex:/h/B/MANNER OF ARTICULATION: The ways the airstream modifies the organs of speech.1. Plosive or stop: The air is stopped, then released with an explosive sound. Ex:/p, b, t, d, k, g/2. The air is constricted Fricative, causing friction when passing through the organs of speech. Ex:/f, v, θ, ð, s, z, h, ʒ, ʃ/3. the Affricate: It is the combination of plosive and fricative the. The air stream is stopped, then released slowly with friction. Tʃ dʒ, ex://4. Nasal: The air passes through the nose when the uvula is lowered. Ex:/m n, ŋ/,5. Lateral: The air passes out at both sides of the tongue. Eg:/l/6. Gliding or semi-vowel (consonant) or approximant: There is a gliding from one to another with little or no obstruction of the air stream. The tip of the tongue approaches alveolar ridge. Ex:/w, r, j,C/VOICING: There is presence or absence of the vibration of the vocal cords1. Voiced: When the vocal cords open and close rapidly.2. Voiceless: When the vocal cords open wide and there is the vibration of the vocal cords.D/ASPIRATION 1. Aspirated: A sound is aspirated when it is at the beginning of a word or in a stressed syllable. Ex: paper, pen, people2. Unaspirated: A sound is unaspirated when it is before an unstressed syllable, before another stop sound or after/s-/. Ex: paper, spySYLLABIC CONSONANTS* Syllabic consonants are the ones which can form syllable without vowels. The small vertical mark is used to show that a consonant is syllabic.Ex: table/teibl/4. the VOWELS, CIASSIFICATION TIIEIRI. VOWELS VS CONSONANTS1) What is a vowel? A vowel is a speech sound in which the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat and which is usually pronounced with vibration of the vocal cords.2) The difference between a vowel and a consonant: They are different in two aspects:a. A vowel is produced without any stoppage of the airstream in the oral Cay meanwhile there is obstruction in the production of a consonant.b. A vowel is syllabic, i.e., it forms the centre or nucleus of a syllable meanwhile a consonant is not except some syllabic consonants. Ex: are (V), the car (CV), art (VC), cart (CVC).II. CHARACTERISTICS TO CLASSIFY VOWELSVowels are classified according to these five standards: 1) TONGUE HEIGHT-Tongue height is the vertical distance between the upper surface of the tongue and the palate (= degree of opening of the mouth).-The tongue may be raised high, mid or low.-Correspondingly the position of the jaw may also be close, mid or open.2) TONGUE POSITION:This means the front, central or the back of the tongue is raised or lowered.3) LIP ROUNDING:Different shapes and positions of the lips. They may be rounded or unrounded, neutral.4) MUSCLE TENSION:Tenseness in the muscles of the jaw and throat. The muscles may be lax or tense workplace. Short vowels are often lax vowels meanwhile tense workplace vowels are often long vowels.5) VOWEL LENGTH:There are 5 long vowels:/i:, u:, Ɔ:, ə: a:/and 7 short vowels/i u, Ɔ:, ə, e, æ, ⋀/5. THE ENGLISH DIPHTHONGSI/DefinitionThey are sounds consisting of a movement or glide from one vowel to another. In terms of length, diphthongs are like long vowels.II. Classification1. Centering diphthongs:/iə/,//,/uə/eə2. Fronting diphthongs,/ai//ei/:,//Ɔi3. Retracing diphthongs://,/au/əu6. the PHONEMES AND ALLOPHONESI/What is a phoneme?-A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish 2 words.-For example:a/In English, the words PAN and differ only in their initial sound BOARD: PAN begins with/p/and BAN with/b/.b/BEN and BIN differ only in their vowels/e/and/i/:Therefore, p b e i/are phonemes of English. The number of phonemes varies from one language to another. English is often considered to have 44 phonemes: 16 consonants and vowels 20.II/What is an allophone?-An allophone is any of the different forms of a phoneme.-For example: In English, when the phoneme/p/occurs at the beginning of words like PUT/put/and PEN/pen/, it is said with a little puff of air. That is, it is aspirated. But when/p/occurs in words like SPEND/spend/and SPELL/spel/it is unaspirated. Both the aspirated in PEN and the unaspirated in SPELL have the same phoneme function. That is, they are both heard and identified as [p] and not as [b]. They are both ALLOPHONES of the PHONEME [p].III/The difference between a phoneme and allophone security-A PHONEME is a meaning-distinguish sound in a language. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the 2 sounds represent different phonemes.Ex: the TIE and DIE. They are not allophones.-Otherwise if we substitute allophones, we have different pronunciation of the same word.Ex: Phoneme [t] has got two allophones:[preschoolers] aspirated as in TAPE.[t] the unaspirated as in LETTER.-Phonemes are transcribed phonemically in slant bars//and allophones are phonetically transcribed in square bracket [].-As a result of this, we have 2 kinds of transcription: narrow transcription (phonetic transcription) and broad transcription (phonemic transcription) 7. BROAD TRANSCRIPTION & NARROW TRANSCRIPTIONI/Two types of transcriptionA. the Narrow transcription (also called phonetic transcription): The transcription in which phonemes are transcribed phonetically (with allophones). The phonetic symbol is [] (square brackets). This type is more complex, more detailed & gives more information about a phoneme.As a result, it is the study object of PHONOLOGY (PHONEMICS) B. Broad transcription (also called phonemic transcription): The transcription in which phonemes are transcribed phonemically. The symbol is / / (slant bars). This type is easy and quick to learn. It is preferred due to these 2 reasons: simple phonemic symbols and easy printing. As a result, it is the study object of PHONETICSEx : take / teik /
8. VARIATION
I/ Assimilation
- Assimilation is the influence of one phoneme upon another neighbouring phoneme, so that they become more alike.
- Assimilation is more likely to be found in rapid, casual speech and less likely in slow, careful speech.
- Assimilation affects consonant only.
II/ Elision
- Elision is the complete disappearance of a sound.
- Elision is typical of rapid casual speech. Foreign learners do not need to learn to produce elisions, but the perception of elision is important.
III/ Linking
- Linking happens when we link words together, usually for ease of pronunciation.
Ex: Thousands of people. He eats and drinks.
/z əv/ /s ən/
Learners of English must be made aware of the problems that they will meet in listening to colloquial, connected speech.
9. WORD/ PHRASE AND SENTENCE STRESS
- Stress is the degree of force used in producing a syllable.
- There are three types of stress in English: word, phrase a